The annotations for the East of the Sun and West of the Moon fairy tale are below. Sources have been cited in parenthetical references, but I have not linked them directly to their full citations which appear on the East of the Sun and West of the Moon Bibliography page. I have provided links back to the Annotated East of the Sun and West of the Moon to facilitate referencing between the notes and the tale.
1. Poor husbandman: A husbandman is "a person who
operates a farm" (WordNet).
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2. Many children: In the days before more reliable
birth control, birth rates in families were higher. Infant
mortality was also higher. If many children survived, the ability
for a poor family to provide for all of the needs of the
househould would be significantly lessened. Before the advent of
more efficient welfare systems, some poor families would use
different methods to feed everyone, including child labor, child
abandonment, and selling children, including into slavery. Some of
these issues are addressed by fairy tales.
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3. Food or clothing: Food, clothing, and shelter
are the basic needs for survival. These are the needs children
rely upon their parents to provide so they can reach adulthood and
fend for themselves. Another tale in which parents struggle to
provide for their children's basic needs is Hansel and Gretel.
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4. Youngest daughter: Fairy tales often contain multiple siblings in which the youngest becomes the protagonist. Traditional folklore is primarily interested in only children or youngest siblings. Either the youngest is the most beautiful and worthy--often female protagonists--or the youngest is stupid and lucky--often male protagonists. In either scenario, the youngest achieves good fortune through an adventure and/or magical helper. "It is the modest, the humble, and often the dispossessed who are elevated to noble rank" (Tatar, 2002, 235).
The youngest is the least experienced and perhaps most protected
of the children in a family. The youngest is also the child least
likely to receive a financial inheritance in the days when the
eldest son received the bulk of a father's estate. The youngest
would consequently find it necessary to know how to fend for
themselves in the world by marrying well or choosing a career.
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5. So beautiful that there were no bounds to her beauty: In this tale, the daughter's beauty makes her desirable to a mysterious stranger, an animal bridegroom. This beauty is not a complete blessing for the daughter. While she can give herself to the animal bridegroom and thus relieve her family's financial burdens, she is essentially forced into an arranged wedding with a stranger on account of her beauty. Her beauty is a blessing for her family and somewhat of a curse for herself, at least at this point in the story.
In Cupid and Psyche, Venus is jealous of Psyche's beauty and tries to have her
married to the ugliest creature, but her son Cupid falls in love
with Psyche and marries her instead.
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6. Thursday evening: Fairy tales do not usually provide detailed settings of time, such as the day of the week and season, like the one provided in this tale.
Thursday is named after the Norse god of thunder and the sky,
Thor. Thor, the son of Odin, is one of the most popular and
powerful gods in Norse mythology. "The Norse believed that during
a thunderstorm, Thor rode through the heavens on his chariot
pulled by the goats Tanngrisni ("gap-tooth") and Tanngnost ("tooth
grinder"). Lightning flashed whenever he threw his hammer
Mjollnir." He was the "the protector of both gods and humans
against the forces of evil" (Lindemans, Pantheon.org).
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7. Autumn: Once again, fairy tales do not usually provide detailed settings of time, such as the day of the week and season, like the one provided in this tale.
Autumn is "the third season of the year, or the season between
summer and winter, often called ``the fall.'' Astronomically, it
begins in the northern temperate zone at the autumnal equinox,
about September 23, and ends at the winter solstice, about
December 23; but in popular language, autumn, in America,
comprises September, October, and November" (Webster's 1990).
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8. Terribly dark, and raining so heavily and blowing so
hard: In other words, it was a dark and stormy night, the now cliched
setting for a story.
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9. Three times: The number and/or pattern of three often appears in fairy tales to provide rhythm and suspense. The pattern adds drama and suspense while making the story easy to remember and follow. The third event often signals a change and/or ending for the listener/reader.
The reasons and theories behind three's popularity are numerous
and diverse. The number has been considered powerful across
history in different cultures and religions, but not all of them.
Christians have the Trinity, the Chinese have the Great Triad
(man, heaven, earth), and the Buddhists have the Triple Jewel
(Buddha, Dharma, Sanga). The Greeks had the Three Fates.
Pythagoras considered three to be the perfect number because it
represented everything: the beginning, middle, and end. Some
cultures have different powerful numbers, often favoring seven,
four and twelve.
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10. Against the window-pane: Why the bear knocks on
the window and not the door is a mystery. A polite bear also calls
on a family at home, by knocking at the door, in Snow White and Rose Red.
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11. A great big white bear: The bear is often portrayed as a polar bear in illustrations for the tale although he is not described as such beyond his white fur. The bear is likely a polar bear since they are native to the Arctic Circle, including Norway where this tale is found.
With winter approaching in the tale, it is important to note that polar bears do not hibernate. According to the World Wildlife Federation, "polar bears are clearly at the top of the food chain, and they've been known to kill and eat seals, walrus and even beluga whales. Standing on its hind legs, a male polar bear can look an elephant straight in the eye. The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is the largest terrestrial carnivore. Adult males can measure more than nine feet in length and weigh between 770 to 1,430 pounds" (WWF.org). You read more about Polar Bears on the WWF's Polar Bear Page.
A bear represents bravery, strength, self-restraint, an evil
influence, a problem or difficulty, an obstacle, violence,
clumsiness, and solitary life (Olderr 1986).
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12. "Good-evening to you," said the White Bear: The
bear is the first fantasical or magical element to appear in the
story. Many scholars do not consider a tale to be a fairy tale
unless it has magical elements in it. A talking bear qualifies
this story to be a fairy tale.
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13. Will you give me your youngest daughter?: Here
we have one of the first motifs which make this tale very similar
to Beauty and the Beast. A beast asks for the youngest, beautiful daughter. The
implication is that he wants to marry her, although a wedding
ceremony is usually not acknowledged or detailed until the end of
the tale once the enchantment has been broken.
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14. I must first ask my daughter about this: In a
feminist analysis of the tale, it is surprising that the father
asks the daughter if she will go with the bear. In times past,
parents had the right to arrange a daughter's marriage without her
consent, usually for financial gain either for themselves, their
daughter, or both. In fairy tales, it is necessary for the heroine
to willingly go to live with the animal bridegroom, thus showing
her willingness to sacrifice her desires for her family, a sign of
virtue. In Beauty and the Beast, the beast stipulates that Beauty must come to live with him
willingly.
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15. She said no: In some inaccurate translations,
the father refuses the offer first and then the daughter herself
decides to go in order to benefit the family without any
pressure.
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16. Talked so much to her about the wealth: According to Maria Tatar, "the father's callous alacrity to marry his daughter to a monster reveals the degree to which marriage is connected to economic opportunity in many of the old tales. But it is also the event that sets in motion a plot with a happily-ever-after ending" (Tatar 2002, 188).
In From the Beast to the Blonde, Marina Warner theorizes
that many fairy tales were created to comfort daughters who faced
arranged marriages and leaving their homes to live in the unknown
household of their in-laws. While the daughter is reluctant to
leave, she is ultimately rewarded with a happy marriage through
her honor of her parents and the initial sacrifice of her
desires.
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17. Washed and mended all her rags, made herself as smart as she
could: Most brides would have a dowry of clothing and household items,
including linens, to take with them. That the daughter only has
rags--not even described as clothing--shows her family's poverty
and desperation. The daughter's pride and strength is shown in her
personal preparation and care of her few meagre possessions.
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18. Came to fetch her: Here the animal bridegroom
carries the daughter away from her home to a location unknown by
her family. In Beauty and the Beast, Beauty goes to the Beast's castle with her father. In that
tale, unlike this one, there is some comfort that the father knows
where she is.
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19. She seated herself on his back with her bundle: The image of the daughter riding the bear to her new home is
popular with illustrators and is often the iconic representation
of this tale. To see several illustrators' visions of the tale,
visit the Illustrations of East of the Sun and West of the Moon page.
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20. Are you afraid?: Once she has made her
decision, the heroine faces her betrothed and her future without
fear. She is asked several times throughout the tale if she is
afraid, but she never is.
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21. Keep tight hold of my fur, and then there is no
danger: The daughter is encouraged to literally cling to her spouse who
will protect her in her journey away from her childhood and into
adulthood.
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22. Far, far away: Throughout the story, the
heroine travels great distances. She travels a great distance,
both in her odyssey to her future home and in her quest for love.
In Cupid and Psyche, Psyche is first carried to Cupid's palace by Zephyrus, the
wind. Later in this tale, the four winds will provide the heroine
with transportation on her quest.
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23. Mountain: The difference in landscape in
Scandinavian tales such as this one from the landscapes found in
the Grimms' tales reflects the geographical difference between the
two countries. In this tale we have mountains, hills and rivers
while in the Grimms' tales we have forests and wooded areas. Both
have imposing auras of mystery and power with their natural
grandeur.
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24. A castle: The enchanted animal bridegroom lives
in a castle, similar to the Beast in Beauty and the Beast. Maria Tatar states: "That the castle is in a mountain suggests
a kinship between this story and tales about men trapped in
wilderness caves and mountain caverns. Kingdoms are often
concealed in mountains in myths and folktales. Venus was said to
lure her suitors into a palace hidden in a mountain, and Peer Gynt
spends time in the hall of the mountain king" (Tatar 2002,
188).
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25. Brilliantly lighted rooms which shone with gold and silver: Bright light, gold, silver, and food shows the opulence and wealth of the white bear's home. Lighting was meager and expensive before the harnessing of electricity for power. Only the wealthy could afford bright lighting, which still might be magically enhanced, as well as gold and silver, precious metals limited to households of the higher classes.
Gold represents virtue, intelligence, superiority, heaven, worldly
wealth, idolatry, revealed truth, marriage, and fruitfulness
(Olderr 1986).
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26. Ring this bell, and what she wanted would appear: The magical castle, with its invisible servants, appears in Cupid and Psyche as well as Beauty and the Beast. Psyche receives the omnipresent service since she is in the
home of a god, Cupid, with the divine powers associated with a
mythological god. The other heroines live in a home of enchantment
where every physical desire is met. They have moved from poverty
to complete luxury. Supposedly they should be content and feel no
more want, but they also know there is more to life than physical
luxury.
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27. A bed: In some inaccurate translations of the
tale, there are two beds in the room, one for the woman and one
for her mysterious visitor. Since no marriage ceremony has been
described, two beds were more acceptable by a larger audience,
especially during Victorian times and the first half of the 20th
century in which married couples on television slept in separate
beds. Cupid and Psyche are described as married at this point in
the story, while this tale is less exact on this point.
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28. Put out the light a man came and lay down beside her:Note that the heroine is not asked to sleep with a beast, but a man. While animal bridegroom stories are abundant around the world, the maiden often finds herself sleeping with a human male in her marriage bed.
Many analysts believe animal bridegroom tales are intended to
alleviate a maiden's fears of the marriage bed. While her husband
may appear to be a beast before their marriage, she will learn
that he is simply a caring man once the marriage is
consummated.
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29. Cast off the form of a beast: Shapeshifting is
a common motif in folklore and found in almost every culture
around the world, often attributed to gods and mythical creatures,
but sometimes practiced by humans. The change can either be
voluntary or imposed through enchantment, as it is here. The most
common types of shapeshifting for humans usually involves changing
into a bear or wolf, especially for men. Shapeshifting is often
instigated by the rising or setting of the sun or moon.
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30. Never saw him: The only stipulation for this
heroine (and Psyche, her counterpart) to retain all of her new
wealth and luxury is that she cannot look upon her spouse. This
tale, like Bluebeard, has often been interpreted as a warning against feminine
curiosity.
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31. She did so wish to go home to her father and mother and
brothers and sisters: Homesickness for family is usually the catalyst for the next
events in the story. The heroine's inability to be happy in her
new home and let go of her old one causes the lovers to be
separated and nearly causes the destruction of her lover.
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32. Promise me never to talk with your mother alone: Promises, while important today, were more powerful in the past
when honor was a great motivator. Also, before the time of
literacy among the masses and written contracts, verbal promises
were given greater weight. A promise was a contract and actionable
by law if broken. Folklore emphasizes the importance of a promise
by meting punishment upon those who do not keep their
promises.
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33. You will bring great misery on both of us: In
each of these tales, the bridegroom emphasizes the inherent danger
of the bride's family visit, but each loves his bride enough to
want her to have all of her desires met. In Beauty and the Beast, the Beasts says, "I cannot refuse you anything you ask, even
though it should cost me my life."
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34. Troll: Trolls originated in Scandinavian
folklore. They are large and powerful monsters, enemies to humans.
Some protagonists in folklore seek the treasures hidden by trolls
in their castles or simply to rescue another human captured by a
troll. They are similar to ogres in that they have low
intelligence and can often be defeated through a battle of wits.
They travel at night and live in darkness since their greatest
weakness is sunlight. Direct sunlight will cause them to either
burst or turn to stone (Jones 1995). Trolls also appear on this
site in The Three Billy Goats Gruff.
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35. I will teach you a way to see him: In Cupid and Psyche, the heroine's sisters encourage her to look at her husband in
his sleep. The sisters are jealous and hope to replace their
sister. The mother appears to be genuinely concerned about her
daughter's welfare. While the mother's intentions might be good,
the heroine's fault lies in listening to her mother and/or sisters
instead of her new husband's counsel, always a danger in
marriages.
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36. A bit of one of my candles: Candles have been a
source of light for centuries, taking on different forms and
derived from various materials. The real question here is why the
heroine didn't think to use a candle before now to relieve her
curiosity. Perhaps, as some modern interpretations of the tale
have suggested, all of the candles in the castle were enchanted
and prevented her from using them for this purpose.
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37. Tallow: Tallow is "obtained from suet [hard fat
around the kidneys and loins in beef and mutton] and used in
making soap, candles and lubricants" (WordNet). Tallow can be made by rendering other types of animal fat,
too. Because of tallow's offensive odor, beeswax or other waxes
derived from plants was preferred although more expensive to
produce in times past. Tallow became virtually obsolete in the
19th century with the advent of paraffin.
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38. The handsomest prince: Princes are as handsome
as the princesses are beautiful in fairy tales. Often, the
ugliness or fierceness of the animal bridegroom balances the
beauty of the disenchanted prince. The two extremes make one
person, the bridegroom.
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39. She did kiss him: Here we have the heroine
waking the prince with a kiss, but with disasterous results. The
prince in Sleeping Beauty, however, wakens the sleeping princess with positive results.
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40. She let three drops of hot tallow fall upon his shirt, and he
awoke: The bear, like Cupid in Cupid and Psyche, is literally burned by
the love and curiosity of Psyche. This event is not a surprise.
The heroine has failed to heed each of the admonitions she has
received. Now the true suspense comes in wondering what price she
will pay for her disobedience.
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41. I have a step-mother who has bewitched me: Very few of the animal bridegroom tales explain the reason for the bridegroom's enchantment.
The image of the evil stepmother occurs frequently in fairy tales.
She is associated with jealousy and cruelty (Olderr 1986). "In
masculine psychology, the stepmother is a symbol of the
unconscious in a destructive role" (von Franz 1970). The
stepmother figure is actually two sided, in that while she has
destructive intentions, her actions often lead the protagonist
into situations that identify and strengthen his or her best
qualities.
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42. East of the sun and west of the moon: The title
of the tale, obviously derived from the place where the heroine
must find her beloved, has a mysterious, otherworldly sound since
it is virtually impossible to reach. The phrase has been used in
song and verse, as well as literature to convey a far away,
romantic location and occasionally everywhere.
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43. A princess: Note the bridegroom's apparent
desire to marry for love, not the requirements of station. Since
his betrothed proved unfaithful, he is required to marry a
princess who matches his rank, however undesirable she may be.
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44. Three ells long: An ell is a unit of measure
for cloth, now rarely used. It is of different lengths in
different countries; the English ell being 45 inches, the Dutch or
Flemish ell is 27 inches, and the Scotch about 37 inches. In
England that would make her nose 135 inches long (Webster's
1990).
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45. She now is the one whom I must marry: In the Beauty and the Beast subcategory of animal bridegroom tales, the enchantment is
broken once Beauty realizes she loves the beast and declares her
love for him. Then she learns that he is actually a man under an
enchantment. In the tales more closely related to Cupid and
Psyche, however, the heroine needs to wait over a given time
period for the enchantment to end. Her impatience to see the true
figure of her husband causes the curse to separate them. The
husband must go and marry another with his first marriage
virtually annulled by his wife's indiscretion.
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46. Self-same bundle of rags: Since her commitment
was been broken, all of the riches and luxuries she received have
been revoked. She is returned to the same state in which she began
the story.
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47. She set out on her way: Note that the daughter, like her predecessor Psyche in Cupid and Psyche, is "brought to happiness by obedience and trial; hers are outer obstacles while Beauty's are inner conflicts resolved by free will" (Hearne 1989, 19). This is perhaps the most significant difference between the stories, making Beauty and the Beast the preferred story with our modern sensibilities.
In the Cupid and Psyche tale as recorded by Apuleius, Psyche is pregnant throughout her search for the missing Cupid. The baby, named Pleasure, is born after she is reunited with Cupid. Later versions of the tale, such as the one by Thomas Bulfinch, omit this detail.
Folklore heros, and occasionally heroines, are often given quests
and/or tasks to achieve a reward. Here the heroine must search for
her husband to prove her worthiness and dedication after her
indiscretion. The most famous quest in folklore is perhaps that of
King Arthur's knights and their search for the Holy Grail.
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48. An aged woman: The heroine will meet three
aged women, see the note about the pattern of three above, who
will give her guidance and gifts to help her with her quest. Old
crones are often sources of wisdom and advice in fairy tales, as
well as gifts to help younger characters on quests. Sometimes the
old women are gods, fairies, or angels in disguise.
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49. A golden apple: According to Maria Tatar, "heroines of folklore are often the recipients of domestic items made out of gold, tokens of the way in which the ordinary can take on the quality of the extraordinary" (Tatar 2002, 193). In contrast, Snow White is given a poisonous apple by an old crone in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.
In times past, offering an apple was a symbol of love and
affection (Philip 1997). The apple was sacred to Aphrodite and
represented knowledge, especially sexual knowledge, fertility and
love.
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50. She who ought to have had him: The aged women
appear to give the heroine help since she is the first and true
bride of the prince, not for any of her own virtues. In this way,
the tale upholds the sanctity of marriage.
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51. Loan of my horse: Horses are intelligent,
strong animals highly valued and sometimes worshipped in numerous
cultures. The lending of a horse is a sign of trust and faith.
Horses are often considered lucky in folklore.
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52. A gold carding-comb: Again, the heroine
receives a golden example of a domestic item, this time a
carding-comb. A carding-comb is "a toothed instrument used for
separating and cleansing wool, flax, hair, etc." (Webster's 1990).
It is used in clothing production, a traditionally feminine
domestic chore.
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53. A golden spinning-wheel: Spinning wheels have
long been important in folklore, especially in tales like Sleeping Beauty and Rumpelstiltskin. A spinning wheel is "a small domestic spinning machine with a
single spindle that is driven by hand or foot" (WordNet). It is
used to produce flax for cloth production, a traditionally
feminine domestic chore.
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54. East Wind: The heroine will now receive help from the four winds, figuratively traveling to the four corners of the earth in search of her lover. While the winds are often portrayed in conflict with each other, in this tale they work together to help the heroine achieve her goal.
In European folklore, each of the four winds has a different personality. The gentle East Wind brings warmth and rain. The vigorous West Wind brings dry weather. The South Wind brings heat and drought. The North Wind is the strongest of the four and brings winter and bitter cold to Northern Europe. (Jobes 1961, 1682-1683). The genders of the winds are malleable and often not designated as they are in this tale.
In Greek mythology, Notus is the god of the South Wind, Eurus is
the god of the East Wind, Zephyrus is the god of the West Wind,
and Boreas is the god of the North Wind (Lindemans, Pantheon.org).
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55. North Wind: In the Arctic Circle, where Norway
and this tale is found, the north wind would be considered
especially cold and fierce, the strongest and most dreaded of the
four winds.
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56. If I may go to the Prince who is here, and be with him
to-night, you shall have it: According to Maria Tatar: "The 'true bride' often tricks the
'false bride' into letting her spend the night with the prince,
or, as in this tale, she bribes her. The imposter bride is always
eager to take possession of an object and will sacrifice the
prince's welfare for material gain" (Tatar 2002, 198). For a
different type of tale with a false bride and a true bride,
read The Goose Girl.
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57. He was asleep: Sleeping potions are common in
fairy tales, such as in The Twelve Dancing Princesses in which suitors are drugged to keep them from learning a
secret.
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58. She could not wake him: Here we irony. The
heroine lost her husband by accidentally waking him. Now she
cannot wake him to get him back.
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59. Christian folk: Asbjornsen and Moe included the
reference to Christian folk in the original Danish. This was not a
translator's choice of words. As Christianity spread across
Europe, Christian messages and icons were added to the traditional
folklore. The Grimms in Germany added many Christian themes and
images to their recordings of German folktales. It is not certain
if the Christian reference was added by the Asbjornsen and Moe or
was included in their original source material.
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60. Wash the shirt which has the three drops of tallow on it: Here the washing came take on several meanings. First the maiden's ability to clean the garment would mark her as skilled at domestic arts and thus a suitable bride.
Second, the heroine is accomplishing a difficult task, removing a settled stain from clothing. Psyche, in Cupid and Psyche, has to perform three impossible tasks to prove her devotion to Cupid.
Third, the endeavour emphasizes the Christian themes of
forgiveness and purity. The maiden is washed clean of her sins
when she cleans the shirt--which becomes as white as driven
snow--since she is now shown to be of the Christian faith. In many
religions, brides go through ritualistic cleansing before their
marriage. The pagan creatures--the trolls--only make the shirt
dirtier and blacker as they attempt to clean it. Their failed
attempts to remove the spot is reminiscent of Lady MacBeth's
inability to remove the vision of blood from her hands in
Shakespeare's MacBeth.
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61. No one shall ever be my bride but the woman who can do
this: In folklore, bride tests are often centered around domestic
duties such as cleaning, cooking or sewing. The woman who best
completes the domestic tasks is chosen as bride for the prince or
suitor.
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62. Flew into such a rage that she burst: Trolls
are supposed to burst when exposed to sunlight. See more about
trolls in the note above. The troll's self-destruction is
reminiscent of Rumpelstiltskin'sself-destructive rage.
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63. Took away with them all the gold and silver that they could
carry: Carrying away the treasures of the defeated antagonist is common
in fairy tales, including Jack and the Beanstalk and Hansel and Gretel. While supporting the ideals of love, honor, and virtue, fairy
tales are very practical, supporting the idea that heros need some
degree of material wealth and security to live happily ever
after.
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